A study (Stafford et al.) conducted at University College, London suggests that individuals who have been brought up by psychologically controlling parents during their childhoods are at significantly greater risk of suffering from mental health problems in later life than those brought up by less psychologically controlling parents.

EXAMPLES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTROL OF CHILDREN BY PARENTS MEASURED IN THE STUDY :

• invading the child’s privacy

• encouraging the child to be excessively dependent

• not allowing the child to make his / her own decisions

THE STUDY (PARTICIPANTS AND METHOD):

The study tracked 5,632 individuals from their birth in 1946, all were from the U.K. Information was gathered via questionnaires about their relationships with their parents and, also, about their mental health during the following periods of their life :

• adolescence
• their 30s
• their 40s
• and when they were between the ages of 60 and 64.

What Specific Problems Can Those Brought Up By Psychologically Controlling Parents Develop?

According to the study, those brought up by psychologically controlling parents can develop various problems including :

• failure to become autonomous
• failure to develop strong sense of own identity
• failure to learn from mistakes and conflicts
• increased likelihood of being ‘insecurely attached‘ which, in turn, increases probability of developing relationship problems in later life

In combination, the above factors had a powerful and enduring adverse effect upon the individuals’ mental well-being throughout their lives.

What Types Of Parental Behavior Help To Ensure Their Off-Springs’ Mental Well-Being :

Perhaps unsurprisingly, the study found that the most important parental behaviors that help to ensure their off-springs’ mental well-being were their care (e.g. listening to, and displaying understanding of, the child’s problems), warmth, friendliness and responsiveness.

Comparing The Effects Of The Mothers’ Treatment Of Their Children And The Farhers’ Treatment Of Their Children :

CHILDHOOD TO MIDDLE-AGE : the mothers’ and the fathers’ care were found in the study to be of equal importance during these stages of the individuals’ lives.

DURING THE INDIVIDUALS’ LATER LIVES : the fathers’ level of care had a greater positive impact on their mental well-being in comparison to the mothers’ level of care.

CONCLUSIONS DRAWN BY THE RESEARCHERS :

The researchers concluded that, given the vital role parents (both mothers and fathers) play in the mental health of their children, government policies need to reflect this by helping parents reduce their stress via economic interventions and the encouragement of a healthy work-life balance, thus providing them with more time and energy to develop positive relationships with their children, which, in turn, should help to produce mentally healthier adults.

David Hosier BSc Hons; MSc; PGDE(FAHE).

A Simple Overview Of The Brain’s Structure And Development :

A simplified way of describing the structure of the brain is to think of it as comprising three main regions that develop in the following order from birth to a person’s early or mid-twenties.

FIRST TO DEVELOP : The brain stem and mid-brain :

Main functions : Sensory / motor and basic survival mechanisms (‘fight / flight’)

SECOND TO DEVELOP : The limbic brain :

Main functions : Emotional development, behavior and attachment

THIRD TO DEVELOP : The cortical brain :

Main function : inhibition, thinking, language, planning, decision-making, abstract thought and learning

CHILDHOOD TRAUMA AND THE BRAIN STEM :

As described above, it is the brain stem’s function to preserve our safety in dangerous situations (by physiologically preparing us for ‘fight or flight‘).

However, when a chid has been traumatized over an extended period and has been excessively exposed to frightening situations, the brain stem can become overative and over-dominant so that the brain is on a constant state of ‘red-alert’ (giving rise to feelings of hypervigilance, edginess, agitation and constant fear) even in situations which are, in objective terms, very safe.

IN SHORT, THE CHILD BECOMES ‘LOCKED INTO SURVIVAL MODE’, primed to lash out (figuratively or literally) or run away (again, figuratively or literally). And, of course, in the case of the former, rhis can lead to him / her being wrongly labelled as ‘bad’ whereas, in fact, his or her behavior is essentially due to what can reasonably described as brain injury incurred due to the traumatic events to which s/he has been subjected.

ARRESTED DEVELOPMENT AND ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS :

Such children are, in effect, ‘stuck’ at the first stage of brain development shown above (i.e. the brain stem / mid brain developmental stage).

Unfortunately, this means the child is not only locked into feeling constantly hyperalert to perpetually anticipated danger and profoundly unsafe, but can suffer from other significant impairments (see below):

OTHER PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH BEING STUCK AT THE STAGE OF BRAIN STEM DEVELOPMENT :

Being locked into the brain stem development stage also prevents the higher regions of the brain (i.e. the limbic brain and the cortical brain, as described above) from developing properly, and, therefore, also from functioning properly.

This can mean that the child is unable to form attachments or control his/her emotions (due to the damage done to the ‘limbic brain‘ ) and is also unable to propely perform the functions of the ‘cortical brain’, including : inhibition (thus leading to impulsive behavior) planning, decision-making, reflecting and learning. Such problems can manifest themselves in numerous ways, including being unable to form friendships at school, ‘mis-behaving’ in class and learning difficulties)

THERAPIES :

‘Bottom-Up’ (as opposed to ‘Top-Down’) therapies such as SENSORIMOTOR PSYCHOTHERAPY can be of benefit to individuals affected by ‘brain stem’ associated problems and it is generally agreed that these problems should be addressed prior to addressing problems associated with the ‘limbic brain’ and ‘cortical brain’ in order to give the latter the greatest chance of success.

eBook :

David Hosier BSc Hons; MSc; PGDE(FAHE).

We have seen from numerous other articles that I have published on this site that those individuals who have suffered significant and protracted childhood trauma are at greatly elevated risk of developing borderline personality disorder (BPD) compared to those who were fortunate enough to experience relatively stable and secure childhoods.

We have also seen how devastating to a person’s life living with BPD can be (indeed, research suggests that approximately one in ten sufferers of the condition will end up dying by suicide due to the psychological agony the condition can give rise to, and far more than one in ten sufferers will attempt suicide).

However, more positively, a study carried out by Zanarini et al. suggests a very significant proportion of BPD sufferers achieve long-term remission or even full recovery.

THE STUDY :

The study spanned 10 myears and started off with 290 participants, all of whom had received a BPD diagnosis. At the end of the ten year period, there remained 249 participants because :

• 12 had committed suicide

• 7 had died of other causes

• 9 withdrew from the study

• 13 could not be traced

RESULTS IN TERMS OF NUMBERS ACHIEVING REMISSION OR FULL RECOVERY :

Out of the remaining 249 participants :

93% ACHIEVED REMISSION LASTING AT LEAST 2 YEARS

86% ACHIEVED REMISSION LASTING AT LEAST 4 YEARS

50% ACHIEVED FULL RECOVERY

(N.B. For the purposes of the study, ‘FULL RECOVERY’ was defined as BOTH remission of symptoms AND the ability to function socially and vocationally. To be considered to have achieved the ability to function socially, the minimum requirement was that the individual should have at least one ‘emotionally sustainable relationship‘ with a non-family member. To be considered to have achieved ability to function vocationally, the individual needed to demonstrate the ability to work full-time in a competent and consistent manner).

VARIATION IN REMISSION RATES FOR DIFFERENT SYMPTOMS OF BPD :

According to Zanarini, the symptoms of BPD which remit most quickly are self-harm and suicidal ideation (which standard treatments for BPD tend to be particularly focused upon) whereas problems with anger and abandonment issues are least likely to remit (Zanarini speculates that persistent anger and abandonment issues may be attributable to ingrained temperamental difficulties and that it is the persitence of these which prevent proper social and vocational functioning, thus precluding full recovery in about [according to this study’s criteria] about half of all cases).

Nevertheless, the fact that, according to this study, many can recover fully from BPD and many more can achieve significant and long-lasting remission from symptoms is extremely encouraging.

For more information about BPD and treatment options, I recommend you visit this page of the NHS website.

eBook :

Above eBook now available for instant download from Amazon; to view further details, click here.

David Hosier BSc Hons; MSc; PGDE(FAHE)

WHAT ARE ‘TOP-DOWN’ THERAPIES?

A ‘top-down’ therapy is one that aims to create a positive change in the individual’s behavioral, emotional and somatic symptoms in a ‘top-down’ direction (i.e. by beneficially ALTERING THE INDIVIDUAL’S THOUGHT PROCESSES). Techniques for doing this include cognitive restructuring and increasing the traumatized individual’s insight into his or her condition, amongst many others.

Whilst ‘top-down’ therapies are necessary, and can be very effective, there is now a growing realization, when treating the traumatized individual, the addition of ‘bottom-up’ therapeutic techniques may be of paramount importance in relation to treating the bodily adverse effects of trauma such as sensorimotor symptoms and autonomic dysregulation.

WHAT ARE ‘BOTTOM-UP’ THERAPEUTIC TECHNIQUES FOR THE TREATMENT OF TRAUMA?

Unlike ‘top-down’ therapies, which concentrate on an individual’s thinking processess to treat the effects of trauma, ‘bottom-up’ therapies concentrate upon BODILY EXPERIENCES as an initial route through which to treat the effects of trauma by ameliorating dysfunctional trauma-related, chronic and automatic bodily responses. This approach is taken because it is theorized that our nervous systems and muscles store distressing images and memories on a unconscious, nonverbal level and that this is manifested in various physical and bodily ways, such as :

• body posture

• how the person moves (for more on this, see my previously published article entitled : Sensory Dysregulation Resulting From Childhood Trauma).

• pain and bodily sensations (for example, see my previously published article entitled : ‘How Childhood Trauma Can Make Us Oversensitive To Light, Sound And Touch’).

• bodily reactions to emotions, events and situations (for example, see my previously published article entitled : Is Your Anxiety Caused By Hyperventilation? A Look AT The Science.

In essence, then, ‘bottom-up’ approaches to the treatment of the adverse effects trauma aim is to correct the sensorimotor dysregulation that has occurred as a result of childhood trauma. (In relation to this, you may also wish to read my previously published article entitled : ‘OFTEN AGGRESSIVE? HAS YOUR SENSORIMOTOR SYSTEM BEEN PRIMED BY CHILDHOOD TRAUMA TO DEAL WITH THREAT?’)

Examples of ‘bottom-up’ therapies for treating the bodily effects of trauma include :

• sensorimotor psychotherapy

• yoga

• somatic experiencing

• breathing exercises

• EMDR

• drama

• singing

• drumming

• tapping / Emotional Freedom Technique

David Hosier BSc Hons; MSc; PGDE(FAHE).

A study conducted by Infuma et al., (2015) suggests that those who have suffered significant and protracted childhood trauma suffer significantly more problems and disturbances in their daily life, as well as more dysfunctional reactions to such problems and disturbances, during middle-age and beyond (when compared to those who have been fortunate enough to avoid the experience of significant childhood trauma).

This adds to the already enormous amount of evidence suggesting that the adverse effects of childhood trauma, both physical and psychological, in the absence of appropriate, effective therapy, can last for years, decades, or, indeed, a whole lifetime (for example, see my article about the ADVERSE CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES (ACE) STUDY).

The study required the participants to keep a daily diary for a total of 30 days and record within it of NEGATIVE EVENTS, POSITIVE EVENTS and CHANGES IN WELL-BEING AS A RESULT OF THESE EVENTS.

THE HYPOTHESIS OF THE STUDY WAS :

Those who had experienced significant childhood trauma would REPORT MORE NEGATIVE EVENTS each day, and LESS ENGAGEMENT WITH POSITIVE EVENTS each day, than participants who had NOT experienced significant childhood trauma.

AND THAT…

Those who had experienced significant childhood trauma would REPORT HIGHER LEVELS OF EMOTIONAL REACTIVITY TO BOTH POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE EVENTS that occurred each day than participants who had NOT experienced significant childhood trauma.

For both NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE EVENTS that the participants recorded in their diaries, participants were required to make a note of which of the following categories the event fell into :

• Spouse / Partner

• Family

• Friends

• Work Finances

• Health

• Other

RESULTS FOR NEGATIVE EVENTS :

• Those who had experienced childhood trauma had a 43 per cent increased likelihood of reporting a daily negative event on any particular day.
• Those with HIGHER LEVELS OF CHILDHOOD TRAUMA, on average, experienced daily negative events on 66 per cent of the 30 days, whereas for those with LOWER LEVELS OF CHILDHOOD TRAUMA this figure fell to an average of 50 per cent.
• The more childhood trauma that a participant had experienced, the stronger his emotional reactivity, and consequential reduction in well-being, to NEGATIVE EVENTS FOCUSED UPON FRIENDS AND HEALTH.

RESULTS FOR POSITIVE EVENTS :

• The more childhood trauma the participant had experienced, the greater his increase in positive emotions in response to positive events focused upon spouse / partner, family, friends and work.

CONCLUSION :

Extrapolating from the above figures, these results suggesr that

• Over the period of a year, those who have experienced significant childhood trauma experience negative events on 60 more days (on average) each year than those who have experienced little or no childhood trauma.
• Those who have experienced significant childhood trauma experienced greater emotional reactivity to both positive and negative events than those who have experienced little or no childhood trauma.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PHYSICAL HEALTH :

The researchers also suggested that the differences found between those who had experienced significant childhood trauma and those who had not, as described above, may help to explain why individuals who have experienced significant childhood trauma, on average, suffer worse physical health than those who have not (in relation to this, you may wish to read my previously published article entitled : How Childhood Trauma Can Reduce Life Expectany By 19 Years). This is because previous research has shown that daily stressors, over time, can, cumatively, have a seriously damaging effect upon our physical health (both directly – by increasing the level of damaging hormones such as cortisol in our blood stream – and indirectly – by increasing the likelihood that we will turn to unhealthy coping strategies such as drinking, smoking and drug-taking).

It may also be the case that the increased emotional reactivity that those who have experienced significant childhood trauma show in response to negative daily events and the associated increased activation of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system may also adversely impact upon health (although increased reactivity to positive events may off-set this to some degree), according to the researchers.

Finally, the fact that those who have experienced significant childhood trauma show increased reactivity to positive daily events and that this may off-set, to some degree, physiological damage caused by increased reactivity to negative events, suggests, according to the researchers, that for those seeking therapy this finding could be exploited by encouraging such individuals to undertake more pleasurable activities by using therapeutic techniques such as behavioral activation.

David Hosier BSc Hons; MSc; PGDE(FAHE)